From algorithms firing staff without human intervention to software keeping tabs on bathroom breaks, technologies including artificial intelligence are already upsetting workers and unsettling workplaces. At call centers, AI systems record and grade how workers handle calls, often giving failing grades for not sticking to the script. Some corporate software spies on workers to see whether they ever write the word "union" in their emails. As technologies grow ever more sophisticated in monitoring, surveilling and speeding up workers, many workplace experts say US businesses, labor unions and government are not doing nearly enough to protect workers from tech's downsides. "Workers are being constantly monitored, and AI-based monitoring tools can make mistakes that can translate into unfair pay cuts or firings," said Virginia Doellgast, a professor of employment relations at Cornell.

Companies are increasingly using algorithms to manage and control individuals not by force, but rather by nudging them into desirable behavior -- in other words, learning from their personalized data and altering their choices in some subtle way. Since the Cambridge Analytica Scandal in 2017, for example, it is widely known that the flood of targeted advertising and highly personalized content on Facebook may not only nudge users into buying more products, but also to coax and manipulate them into voting for particular political parties. University of Chicago economist Richard Thaler and Harvard Law School professor Cass Sunstein popularized the term "nudge" in 2008, but due to recent advances in AI and machine learning, algorithmic nudging is much more powerful than its non-algorithmic counterpart. With so much data about workers' behavioral patterns at their fingertips, companies can now develop personalized strategies for changing individuals' decisions and behaviors at large scale. These algorithms can be adjusted in real-time, making the approach even more effective.

The growth of the "gig economy" in recent years has revolutionised the way that millions of people work. Proponents argue that the gig economy gives people more flexibility and opportunities and lowers barriers of entry to the labour market, while detractors say that it erodes workplace regulations and standards while encouraging businesses to treat workers as increasingly disposable. No matter which side of the debate you fall on, it's clear that the gig economy is here to stay. But with more and more people signing up for these flexible and freelance work arrangements, how can businesses manage them effectively? Enter "algorithmic management": the use of algorithms to oversee the efforts of human workers. As algorithmic management becomes more commonplace, it's important to understand what this practice is, the pros and cons of using it, and what the future holds.

The growth of the "gig economy" in recent years has revolutionised the way that millions of people work. Proponents argue that the gig economy gives people more flexibility and opportunities and lowers barriers of entry to the labour market, while detractors say that it erodes workplace regulations and standards while encouraging businesses to treat workers as increasingly disposable. No matter which side of the debate you fall on, it's clear that the gig economy is here to stay. But with more and more people signing up for these flexible and freelance work arrangements, how can businesses manage them effectively? Enter "algorithmic management": the use of algorithms to oversee the efforts of human workers. As algorithmic management becomes more commonplace, it's important to understand what this practice is, the pros and cons of using it, and what the future holds.

I'm afraid I can't do that." HAL's cold, if polite, refusal to open the pod bay doors in 2001 A Space Odyssey has become a defining warning about putting too much trust in artificial intelligence, particularly if you work in space. In the movies, when a machine decides to be the boss – or humans let it – things go wrong. Yet despite myriad dystopian warnings, control by machines is fast becoming our reality. Algorithms – sets of instructions to solve a problem or complete a task – now drive everything from browser search results to better medical care. They are helping design buildings. They are speeding up trading on financial markets, making and losing fortunes in micro-seconds. They are calculating the most efficient routes for delivery drivers. In the workplace, self-learning algorithmic computer systems are being introduced by companies to assist in areas such as hiring, setting tasks, measuring productivity, evaluating performance and even terminating employment: "I'm sorry, Dave.

Companies are increasingly using algorithms to manage their remote workforces. Called "algorithmic management," this approach has been most widely adopted in gig economy companies. For example, ride-hailing company Uber substantially increases its efficiency by managing some three million workers with an app that instructs drivers which passengers to pick up and which route to take. Being managed in this way offers some benefit to self-employed workers as well: for example, Uber drivers are free to decide when and for how long they would like to work and which area they would like to serve. However, our research reveals that algorithmic management is also frustrating to workers, and their resentment can lead them to behave subversively with the potential to cause real harm to their companies.

Artificial intelligence software and robots are powerful in pattern recognition, predictive analytics, heavy computations, and handling repetitive tasks. Thanks to these capabilities, machines are gradually replacing humans in many occupations and activities, to extent of a growing concern about the impact of automation on the job market. While the power of AI is indisputable, the question arises how far will automation go and what will be its impact on employees, organizations, and business processes. The main question is -- will AI become the next boss for the majority of employees? Most experts agree that the majority of occupations will be partly or fully automated in the near future. In practice, this means that employees will be either fully replaced by machines, or begin working with them as assistants, trainers, or subordinates.

A report shown at the 2016 World Economic Forum in January says millions of jobs will be lost to robots in the next few years. When thinking about who is most vulnerable, factory workers, drivers, and pilots come to mind. Surely the jobs requiring a human touch, such as artists, entertainers, and managers, will stick around, right? Maybe some of those jobs will be safe. Managers, not so much; very soon, robots will be replacing humans in top management positions, even up to the CEO level.

A report shown at the 2016 World Economic Forum in January says millions of jobs will be lost to robots in the next few years. When thinking about who is most vulnerable, factory workers, drivers, and pilots come to mind. Surely the jobs requiring a human touch, such as artists, entertainers, and managers, will stick around, right? Maybe some of those jobs will be safe. Managers, not so much; very soon, robots will be replacing humans in top management positions, even up to the CEO level.